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\begin{document}
\parindent=0cm
\section*{VI Simplicial Homology}
\begin{defn}
(1) An \key{ordered simplex} is a simplex $\sig$ together with a
particular order of vertices of $\sig$ and will be denoted by
$\sig=(v_0,\cdots, v_p)$.\\
(2) An \key{orientation} of a simplex $\sig=(v_0,\cdots, v_p)$ :
Two orderings of vertices of $\sig$ are equivalent if they differ
by an even permutation. A choice of an equivalence class is called
an orientation of $\sig$.\\
(3) An \key{oriented simplex} is a simplex $\sig$ together with an
orientation of $\sig$ and will be denoted by $[v_0,\cdots,v_p]$
representing the equivalence class of $(v_0,\cdots, v_p)$ as an
orientation of $\sig$.
\end{defn}
¿¹¸¦ µé¸é, 2-simplexÀÇ °æ¿ì $[v_0,v_1,v_2]=[v_1,v_2,v_0]$ÀÌ´Ù.\\

±×¸²À¸·Î º¸¸é ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ °¢ simplex¿¡ µÎ°¡Áö orientationÀÌ
Á¸ÀçÇÑ´Ù.\\

\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{center}
\psset{unit=1cm}
\parbox{2.7cm}{
\begin{pspicture}(1.4,1.4)%
\rput(.2,.2){\psline{->}(0,0)(.55,.55) \psline{*-*}(0,0)(1,1)}
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\rput(1.5,0.3){$[v_0,v_1]$}
\end{pspicture}}
or \hspace{1em}
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\rput(1.5,0.3){$[v_1,v_0]$}
\end{pspicture}}\\[6mm]

\psset{unit=1cm} \parbox{2.7cm}{
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\rput(1,-0.7){$[v_0,v_1,v_2$]}
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or \hspace{1em}
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\rput(1,-0.7){$[v_0,v_2,v_1$]}
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\end{center}
\caption{Orientations}
\end{figure}


{\bf Notation} $\sig$ : an oriented simplex $\Rightarrow$
$\overline{\sig}$ : an oriented simplex with opposite orientation.

\begin{defn}[$p$-th chain group]
$K$ : a simplicial complex\\
$\ch{p}$= the abelian group generated by the oriented
$p$-simplices with the relation $\overline{\sig}=-\sig$.
\end{defn}
Áï, $\ch{p}$´Â $K$ÀÇ $p$-simplexµé·Î generateµÈ free abelian
groupÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÏ¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î $p\leq 0$ÀÎ °æ¿ì¿¡´Â
$\ch{p}=0$À¸·Î Á¤ÀÇÇÑ´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, $\ch{p}$ÀÇ ¿ø¼Ò¸¦ $p$-chainÀÌ¶ó°í
ºÎ¸£°í $\displaystyle{\sum^k_{i=1}}n_i\sig_i,\ n_i\in \zb$·Î
À¯ÀÏÇÏ°Ô Ç¥ÇöµÈ´Ù.\\

´ÙÀ½Àº free abelian groupÀÇ universal property·ÎºÎÅÍ ¸í¹éÇÏ´Ù.\\

{\bf Note.} A function $f$ from the oriented $p$-simplices of $K$
to an abelian group $G$ extends to a homomorphism : $\ch{p} \to G$
uniquely if $f(\overline{\sig})=-f(\sig)$ for all oriented $\sig$.\\

{\bf \underline{Boundary operation}} \\[2mm]
$\partial_p : \ch{p}\to\ch{p-1}$, boundary operator is defined as
follows.
\begin{displaymath}
\sig=[v_0,\cdots, v_p] \Rightarrow
\partial_p\sig=\sum^k_{i=0}(-1)^i[v_0,\cdots,\widehat{v}_i,\cdots,v_p]
\end{displaymath}
$\partial_p$°¡ orientationÀ» Á¤ÀÇÇÏ´Â equivalence class¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿©
well-definedÀÓÀ» È®ÀÎÇÏ±â À§ÇØ¼­´Â
$\partial_p\sig$°¡ well-definedÀÌ°í \\
$\partial_p(\overline{\sig})=-\partial_p\sig$ÀÓÀ» º¸ÀÌ¸é µÇ´Âµ¥,
ÀÌ´Â
transposition¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ºÎÈ£°¡ ¹Ý´ë°¡ µÊÀ» º¸ÀÌ¸é ÃæºÐÇÏ´Ù.\\
 Áï,$\partial
[v_0,\cdots,v_j,v_{j+1},\cdots,v_p]=-\partial[v_0,\cdots,v_{j+1},v_j,\cdots,v_p]$ÀÓÀ»
È®ÀÎÇÏ¸é µÈ´Ù. ±×·±µ¥ ÀÌ´Â $\partial$ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ µû¶ó¼­ ÀÚ¸íÇÏ¹Ç·Î,
$\partial_p$´Â well-defined homomorphismÀÌ µÈ´Ù.

\begin{lem}
$\partial_{p-1}\partial_p=0$ ($\partial^2=0$)
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
$\partial_{p-1}\partial_p[v_0,\cdots,v_p]=\partial_{p-1}\displaystyle{\sum^k_{i=0}}
(-1)^i[v_0,\cdots,\widehat{v}_i,\cdots,v_p]\\
\hspace*{5ex}=\displaystyle{\sum^k_{i=0}}(-1)^i\partial_{p-1}[v_0,\cdots,\widehat{v}_i,\cdots,v_p]\\
\hspace*{5ex}=\displaystyle{\sum^k_{j<i}}(-1)^i(-1)^j[v_0,\cdots,\widehat{v}_j,\cdots,\widehat{v}_i,\cdots,v_p]\\
\hspace*{9ex}+\displaystyle{\sum^k_{i<j}}(-1)^i(-1)^{j-1}[v_0,\cdots,\widehat{v}_i,\cdots,\widehat{v}_j,\cdots,v_p]\\
\hspace*{5ex}=0$
\end{proof}

\newpage
{\bf Remark}\\
For convenience, we can add more generators and relations to
$\ch{p}$. \\
If $v_0,\cdots,v_p$ are vertices not necessarily distinct of some
simplex, we define
\begin{displaymath}
[v_0,\cdots,v_p]=\{\begin{array}{ll} 0 & \textrm{if not
distinct.}\\ \textrm{as before}&\textrm{if distinct}\end{array}.
\end{displaymath}
and define $\partial$ by the same formula
\begin{displaymath}
\partial_p\sig=\sum^k_{i=1}(-1)^i[v_0,\cdots,\widehat{v}_i,\cdots,v_p]
\end{displaymath}
Then this is well defined and $\partial^2=0$.

\begin{defn}
$\cdots \to \ch{p+1} \overset{\partial_{p+1}}{\to}\ch{p}
\overset{\partial_{p}}{\to}\ch{p-1}\to \cdots$ (:=$\{C_p,
\partial\}$) with $\partial^2=0$ \\
\hspace*{7ex}  is called a chain complex.\\
Define $\cy{p}$ = $ker \partial_p$ = the group of $p$-cycles.\\
\hspace*{7ex}$\bd{p}$ = $im \partial_p$ = the group of $p$-boundaries.\\
\hspace*{7ex}$\ho{p}$ = $\cy{p}/\bd{p}$ = the $p$-th homology
group.\\
\end{defn}

¸î°¡Áö object¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© homology groupÀ» °è»êÇØ º¸ÀÚ.\\

1. (0) $K=$ \psset{unit=1cm} \parbox{2.7cm}{
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\pspolygon(0,0)(2,0)(1,1.732) \psline{->}(1,1.732)(0.5,0.866)
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\rput(1,1.94){$v_1$} \rput(-0.2,-0.2){$v_2$}\rput(2.2,-0.2){$v_3$}
\rput(0.1,1){$\sig_1$}
\rput(1,-0.3){$\sig_2$}\rput(1.9,1){$\sig_3$}
\end{pspicture}}\psset{unit=0.5cm}
(=$\partial$\parbox{1cm}{\begin{pspicture}(0,0)(2,1.8)%
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¸ÕÀú $\ch{1}=\zb\langle\sig_1,\sig_2,\sig_3\rangle=\zb^3$,
$\ch{0}=\zb\langle v_1,v_2,v_3\rangle=\zb^3$ÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ°í, chain
complex
\begin{displaymath}
0\to \ch{1} \overset{\partial}{\to} \ch{0}\to 0
\end{displaymath}
À» ¾ò´Â´Ù. $\ho{0}$¸¦ ±¸ÇÏ¸é, ¸ÕÀú $\ch{0}$´Â $\partial$¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿©
¸ðµÎ 0ÀÌ µÇ¹Ç·Î, $\cy{0}=\ch{0}$ÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, $\partial
\sig_1=v_2-v_1$, $\partial \sig_2=v_3-v_2$, $\partial
\sig_3=v_1-v_3$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î, $\bd{0}$´Â $\{v_2-v_1,v_3-v_2,v_1-v_3\}$·Î
generateµÇ´Â $\ch{0}$ÀÇ subgroupÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ subgroupÀÇ Â÷¿øÀÌ
2ÀÌ¹Ç·Î, $\ho{0}=\cy{0}/\bd{0}=\zb$ÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. \\

Á÷°üÀûÀ¸·Î $\bd{0}$¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏ´Â ¿ø¼Ò´Â 1-simplexÀÇ boundary°¡ µÇ¹Ç·Î,
$\ho{0}$¿¡¼­´Â 1-simplex·Î ¿¬°áµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Â vertexµéÀº ¼­·Î
equivalentÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î
º¸±â ¶§¹®¿¡, ÀÏ¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î ´ÙÀ½ »ç½ÇÀÌ ¼º¸³ÇÑ´Ù.\\
 {\bf Note}.
$\ho{o}\cong\zb^k$, $k$= number of connected
components of $|K|$.\\

´ÙÀ½À¸·Î $\ho{1}$À» ±¸ÇØº¸ÀÚ. ¸ÕÀú $\bd{1}=0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î
$\ho{1}=\cy{1}=ker\partial$ÀÌ´Ù. ÀÓÀÇÀÇ $c\in \ch{1}$¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿©,
$c=n_1\sig_1+n_2\sig_2+n_3\sig_3$·Î ¾µ ¼ö ÀÖ´Âµ¥, $\partial c
=0$ÀÌ µÇ±â À§ÇØ¼­´Â \\
\hspace*{5em} $\partial
c=n_1\partial\sig_1+n_2\partial\sig_2+n_3\partial\sig_3\\
\hspace*{6em}=n_1(v_2-v_1)+n_2(v_3-v_2)+n_3(v_1-v_3)\\
\hspace*{6em}=(n_3-n_1)v_1+(n_1-n_2)v_2+(n_2-n_3)v_3=0$\\
ÀÌ µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ¹Ç·Î, $n_1=n_2=n_3:=n$ÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­
$\ho{1}=\cy{1}=\zb\langle\sig_1+\sig_2+\sig_3\rangle\cong\zb$ÀÌ´Ù.\\

(1) $K_1=$ \psset{unit=0.7cm} \parbox{2.7cm}{
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\rput{-30}(2,1){\pspolygon(0,0)(2,0)(1,1.732)
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$K_1$´Â connectedÀÌ¹Ç·Î, $\ho[K_1]{0}=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù. $\ho[K_1]{1}$À»
±¸ÇÏ±â À§ÇÏ¿© $\cy[K_1]{1}$¸¦ ¾Ë¾Æº¸ÀÚ. À§ÀÇ (0)¿¡¼­ ³íÀÇÇÑ ¹Ù¸¦
ÀÓÀÇÀÇ 1-chain $c$¿¡ Àû¿ëÇÏ¸é, $\partial c=0$ÀÌ±â À§ÇÑ
ÇÊ¿äÃæºÐÁ¶°ÇÀº $c$¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏ´Â °¢ vertex¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© µé¾î¿À´Â
1-simplexÀÇ °è¼ö¿Í ³ª°¡´Â 1-simplexÀÇ °è¼ö°¡ ÀÏÄ¡ÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù´Â
°ÍÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. Áï,
\begin{center}
\psset{unit=1cm}
\parbox{2.5cm}{\begin{pspicture}(2.5,2)%
\psline(0,2)(1,1) \psline(0,0)(1,1) \psline(1,1)(2,1)
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\psline{->}(1,1)(1.5,1) \rput(0.7,0.3){$\sig_1$}
\rput(0.7,1.7){$\sig_2$}\rput(1.5,1.2){$\sig_3$}
\end{pspicture}}
$c=n_1\sig_1+n_2\sig_2+n_3\sig_3+\cdots$
\end{center}
±×¸²°ú °°ÀÌ $c$°¡ ÁÖ¾îÁø °æ¿ì¿¡ $n_1+n_2=n_3$°¡ µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù.
µû¶ó¼­, $K_1$ÀÇ ±×¸²¿¡¼­ ¿ÞÂÊ »ï°¢ÇüÀ» µµ´Â cycleÀ» $c_1$, ¿À¸¥ÂÊ
»ï°¢ÇüÀ» µµ´Â cycleÀ» $c_2$¶ó°í ÇÏ¸é $K_1$ÀÇ 1-cycleÀº
$nc_1+mc_2$ÀÇ ²Ã·Î Ç¥ÇöµÈ´Ù. $\bd[K_1]{1}=0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î,
$\ho[K_1]{1}\cong \zb^2$ÀÌ´Ù.\\

(2) $K_2=$ \psset{unit=0.7cm} \parbox{3cm}{
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¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î $\ho[K_2]{0}=\zb$ÀÌ°í, 1-cycleÀº $nc_1+mc_2$ÀÇ ²Ã·Î
Ç¥ÇöµÇ¹Ç·Î $\ho[K_2]{1}\cong \zb^2$ÀÌ´Ù.\\

(3) $K_3=$ \psset{unit=0.7cm} \parbox{3cm}{
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\rput{30}(2.5,0){\pspolygon(0,0)(2,0)(1,1.732)
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¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î $\ho[K_3]{0}=\zb^2$ÀÌ°í, $\ho[K_3]{1}\cong \zb^2$ÀÓÀ» È®ÀÎÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. \\

ÀÏ¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î, $K$ÀÇ 1-dimensional ±¸¸ÛÀÇ °³¼ö¸¦ $k$¶ó°í ÇßÀ» ¶§,
$\ho{1}=\zb^k$·Î ÁÖ¾îÁüÀ» À§¿Í °°Àº ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î È®ÀÎÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. \\

{\bf ¼÷Á¦ 19.} $G$: Graph $\Rightarrow$
$\ho[G]{1}=abel(\pi_1(G))$.\\

À§ÀÇ ¿¹¿¡¼­ $K_1$°ú $K_2$ÀÇ homology groupÀÌ ÀÏÄ¡ÇÔÀ» °üÂûÇÒ ¼ö
ÀÖ´Âµ¥, ÀÏ¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î homotopically equivalentÇÑ objectµéÀÇ homology
groupÀº ¿ÏÀüÈ÷ ÀÏÄ¡ÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù.\\

2. (1) $K=$ \psset{unit=1cm} \parbox{2.7cm}{
\begin{pspicture}(-0.2,-0.2)(2.5,2)%
\pspolygon[fillstyle=solid,fillcolor=lightgray](0,0)(2,0)(1,1.732)
\rput(1,0.6){$\tau$}\rput(1,0.6){\psarc{->}(0,0){0.3}{100}{440}}
\psline{->}(1,1.732)(0.5,0.866) \psline{->}(0,0)(1,0)
\psline{->}(2,0)(1.5,0.866) \rput(1,1.94){$v_1$}
\rput(-0.2,-0.2){$v_2$}\rput(2.2,-0.2){$v_3$}
\rput(0.1,1){$\sig_1$}
\rput(1,-0.3){$\sig_2$}\rput(1.9,1){$\sig_3$}
\end{pspicture}} \\[4mm]

$K$´Â connectedÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\ho{0}=\zb$ÀÓÀº ¹Ù·Î ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.\\
$K$ÀÇ 1-cycle $c$´Â ¾Õ¼­ ¾Ë¾Æº» ¹Ù¿Í °°ÀÌ
$c=n(\sig_1+\sig_2+\sig_3)=:nc_1$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ´Ù. ±×·±µ¥ $c_1=\partial
\tau$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $c\sim 0$(homologous to zero)ÀÌ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­
$\ho{1}=0$ÀÌ´Ù.\\
¶ÇÇÑ $\bd{2}=0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\ho{2}=\cy{2}=ker\partial$ÀÓÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö
ÀÖ´Âµ¥, $\ch{2}$ÀÇ generator $\tau$¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© $\partial
\tau=c_1\neq 0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $ker\partial=0$ÀÌ µÇ¾î $\ho{2}=0$ÀÌ´Ù. \\


(2) $K=$ \psset{unit=0.5cm} \parbox{4cm}{
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\parbox{8.5cm}
{2Â÷¿ø cellµé¿¡ ½Ã°è¹Ý´ë¹æÇâÀ¸·Î orientationÀ»
ÁØ´Ù.\\ $c_1$ : ¹Ù±ùÂÊ cycle.\\ $c_2$ : ¾ÈÂÊ cycle.\\
$\tau = \sig_1+ \sig_2 +\cdots$ where $\sig_i$ are 2-dimensional cells. }\\[4mm]
 % ±×¿¡ µû¶ó 1Â÷¿ø simplexÀÇ orientationÀÌ °áÁ¤µÈ´Ù.

$K$´Â connectedÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\ho{0}=\zb$ÀÓÀº ÀÚ¸íÇÏ´Ù.
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\end{pspicture}
\end{center}
À§ ±×¸²°ú °°Àº ¼ºÁúÀ» ÀÌ¿ëÇÏ¿© $K$ ³»ºÎÀÇ 1-cycleÀº ¹Ù±ùÂÊÀ¸·Î
homologousÇÏ°Ô ¹Ð¾î³¾ ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¹Ç·Î, $K$ÀÇ essentialÇÑ 1-cycleÀº
$nc_1$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ µÈ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­,
$\ho{1}=\langle c_1\rangle=\zb$.\\
$K$ÀÇ ÀÓÀÇÀÇ 2-chain $c=n_1\sig_1+n_2\sig_2+\cdots$¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿©
$\partial c = n_1\partial\sig_1+n_2\partial\sig_2+\cdots=0$ÀÌ¸é,
¾Õ¼­ ³íÀÇÇÑ ¹Ù¿Í °°ÀÌ (ÀÌ¹ø¿¡´Â °¢ °øÅëº¯¿¡¼­ÀÇ incidence¸¦
°í·ÁÇÏ¸é) $n_1=n_2=\cdots$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î, $c$°¡ cycleÀÌ¶ó¸é,
$c=n(\sig_1+\sig_2+\cdots)=n\tau$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ´Ù. ±×·±µ¥, $\partial
c=n\partial\tau=n(c_1-c_2)=0$ÀÌ µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ¹Ç·Î $n=0$ Áï, $c=0$ÀÌ´Ù.
µû¶ó¼­, $\ho{2}=0$ÀÌ´Ù.\\

ÀÏ¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î boundary°¡ ÀÖ´Â manifold $K$¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ÀÌ¿Í °°ÀÌ »ý°¢ÇØ
º¸¸é $\ho{2}=0$ÀÌ µÊÀ» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.
\\

3. Surfaces\\
(0) $K=$ \psset{unit=1cm} \parbox{2.3cm}{
\begin{pspicture}(2,2.5)%
\psline(1,2)(0,0.6)(1,0)(1,2)(2,0.6)(1,0)
\psline[linestyle=dashed](0,0.6)(2,0.6)
\end{pspicture}}
$\approx S^2$ \hspace{0.5cm} \parbox{8cm}{orientable surfaceÀÌ¹Ç·Î
boundary¿¡¼­ ¼­·Î »ó¼âµÇµµ·Ï orientationÀ» ÁÙ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. }\\[4mm]

$\ho{0}=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù.\\
1-cycleÀº À§ÀÇ 2.(2)¿¡¼­¿Í °°ÀÌ ¿·À¸·Î ¹Ð¾î³»¸é point¿Í
homologousÇÏ°Ô µÇ¹Ç·Î $\ho{1}=0$ÀÌ´Ù. \\
2-cycleÀº ¾Õ¼­¿Í
¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î $c=n\tau$, $\tau=\sig_1+\sig_2+\sig_3+\sig_4$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ
µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ´Âµ¥, $\partial c=n\partial \tau=0$(orientationÀ»
boundary¿¡¼­ ¼­·Î »ó¼âµÇµµ·Ï ÁÖ¾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î)ÀÌ¹Ç·Î, $c$°¡ 2-cycleÀÓÀ»
È®ÀÎÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­, $\ho{2}=\langle\tau\rangle=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù. \\

µÚ¿¡¼­ »ìÆìº¸°ÚÁö¸¸, ¸¸¾à orientableÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Ù¸é boundary¿¡¼­
»ó¼âµÇµµ·Ï orientationÀ» ÁÙ ¼ö ¾øÀ¸¹Ç·Î 2-cycleÀÌ Á¸ÀçÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Æ
$\ho{2}=0$ÀÌ µÈ´Ù.\\

(1) Torus\\
\hspace*{1em} $K=$ \psset{unit=2cm} \parbox{3cm}{
\begin{pspicture}(1.3,1.35)%
\rput(0,0.65){$a$} \rput(0.65,0){$b$}%
\rput(1.3,0.65){$a$} \rput(0.65,1.3){$b$}%
\rput(0.15,0.15){\pspolygon[fillstyle=solid,fillcolor=lightgray](0,0)(1,0)(1,1)(0,1)
    \psline{->>}(0,0)(0,0.55)
    \psline{->}(0,0)(.55,0)
    \psline{->}(0,1)(.55,1)
    \psline{->>}(1,0)(1,0.55)}
\end{pspicture}}
\parbox{9cm}{Torus¿¡ Àû´çÇÑ trangulationÀ» ÁÖ°í, boundary¿¡¼­
»ó¼âµÇµµ·Ï orientationÀ» ÁØ´Ù.}\\[4mm]

$\ho{0}=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù.\\
1-cycleÀº ¹Ù±ùÂÊÀ¸·Î ¹Ð¾î³¾ ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¹Ç·Î, boundary¿¡¼­ÀÇ 1-cycle°ú
°°´Ù. ´Ù½Ã¸»ÇØ, $D_1=\cy{1}\cap\{$boundary chains$\}$¶ó µÎ¸é,
$\cy{1}=D_1+\bd{1}$ÀÌ´Ù. boundary´Â figure eight°ú °°À¸¹Ç·Î
$D_1=\cy{1}\cap\{$boundary chains$\} =\langle
a,b\rangle=\zb^2$ÀÌ´Ù. $\bd{1}\cap D_1$À» ±¸ÇÏ¸é, ÀÓÀÇÀÇ 2-chain
$c$¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© $\partial c$°¡ boundary¿¡ Æ÷ÇÔµÇ±â À§ÇØ¼­´Â
$c=n\tau$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ°í, ÀÌ ¶§ $\partial
c=n\partial\tau=n(b+a-b-a)=0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\partial$ÀÇ image°¡ µÇ´Â
1-cycleÀº 0»ÓÀÌ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­ $\ho{1}=\cy{1}/\bd{1}=(D_1+B_1)/B_1=D_1/(B_1\cap D_1) =\zb^2$ÀÌ´Ù.\\
2-cycleÀº ¾Õ¼­¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î $c=n\tau$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ´Âµ¥,
$\partial c=n\partial \tau=0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $c$°¡ 2-cycleÀÓÀ»
È®ÀÎÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­, $\ho{2}=\langle\tau\rangle=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù. \\

(2) $P^2=$ \psset{unit=1.5cm} \parbox{3cm}{
\begin{pspicture}(1.3,1.6)%
\rput(0.6,1.6){$a$} \rput(0.6,0){$a$}
\rput(0.6,0.8){\pscircle[fillstyle=solid,fillcolor=lightgray](0,0){0.6}
\psarc{*->}(0,0){0.6}{0}{95}\psarc{*->}(0,0){0.6}{180}{275}}
\end{pspicture}}\\[4mm]

$\ho[P^2]{0}=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù. \\
1-cycleÀº boundary¿¡¼­¸¸ »ý°¢ÇÏ¸é µÇ´Âµ¥ boundary´Â circle°ú
°°À¸¹Ç·Î $D_1=\langle a\rangle$ÀÌ´Ù. $\bd[P^2]{1}\cap D_1$À»
±¸ÇÏ¸é, ÀÓÀÇÀÇ 2-chain $c$¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© $\partial c$°¡ boundary¿¡
Æ÷ÇÔµÇ±â À§ÇØ¼­´Â $c=n\tau$ÀÌ°í, ÀÌ ¶§ $\partial
c=n\partial\tau=2na$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\bd[P^2]{1}\cap D_1=\langle
2a\rangle$ÀÌ µÇ¾î °á±¹
$\ho[P^2]{1}=\langle a\rangle/\langle 2a\rangle=\zb/2\zb=\zb_2$ÀÌ´Ù.\\
2-cycleÀº ¾Õ¼­¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î $c=n\tau$ÀÇ ²ÃÀÌ µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ´Âµ¥,
$\partial c=n\partial \tau=2na$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\partial c=0$ÀÌ¸é $n=0$ Áï,
 $c=0$ÀÌ µÇ¾î $\ho[P^2]{2}=0$ÀÌ´Ù. \\

(3) Klein Bottle\\
\hspace*{1em} $K=$ \psset{unit=2cm} \parbox{3cm}{
\begin{pspicture}(1.3,1.35)%
\rput(0,0.65){$a$} \rput(0.65,0){$b$}%
\rput(1.3,0.65){$a$} \rput(0.65,1.3){$b$}%
\rput(0.15,0.15){\pspolygon[fillstyle=solid,fillcolor=lightgray](0,0)(1,0)(1,1)(0,1)
    \psline{->>}(0,0)(0,0.55)
    \psline{->}(0,0)(.55,0)
    \psline{->}(0,1)(.55,1)
    \psline{-<<}(1,0)(1,0.55)}
\end{pspicture}}
$\ho{0}=\zb$ÀÌ´Ù. \\[4mm]

¾Õ¼­¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î $D_1=\langle a,b\rangle$ÀÌ´Ù.
$\partial\tau=b+a-b+a=2a$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\bd{1}\cap D_1=\langle
2a\rangle$ÀÌ µÇ°í °á±¹
$\ho{1}=\langle a,b\rangle/\langle 2a\rangle=\zb_2\bigoplus\zb$ÀÌ´Ù.\\
¶ÇÇÑ $\partial \tau=2a\neq 0$ÀÌ¹Ç·Î $\ho{2}=0$ÀÌ´Ù. \\

{\bf ¼÷Á¦. 20} Compute
$\ho[\overset{g}{\underset{1}{\sharp}}T^2]{*}$ and
$\ho[\overset{k}{\underset{1}{\sharp}}P^2]{*}$

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